Abstract:
This thesis aims to investigate the intersection of musicality and the basics of coding, examining how principles of music can be applied to coding practices and vice versa. By exploring the relationship between these seemingly disparate domains, we seek to uncover potential synergies, creative possibilities, and practical applications. Through a multidisciplinary approach, encompassing music theory, computer science, and cognitive science, we will delve into the fundamental aspects of musicality and coding, and explore how they can inform and enhance each other. The research conducted will contribute to the growing field of creative computing and foster new insights into the nature of both music and coding.
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation
1.2 Research Objectives
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Scope and Limitations
1.6 Thesis Structure
Chapter 2: Musicality and Its Fundamentals
2.1 Overview of Musical Elements
2.2 Rhythm and Timing
2.3 Melody and Harmony
2.4 Timbre and Sound Manipulation
2.5 Musical Structures and Composition
2.6 Musical Perception and Cognition
Chapter 3: Basics of Coding
3.1 Introduction to Coding
3.2 Programming Languages and Paradigms
3.3 Data Structures and Algorithms
3.4 Control Structures and Logical Reasoning
3.5 Abstraction and Modularization
3.6 Coding Practices and Methodologies
Chapter 4: Mapping Musical Concepts to Coding
4.1 Rhythm and Timing in Coding
4.2 Melody and Harmony in Code Composition
4.3 Sound Manipulation and Timbre in Coding
4.4 Structuring Code as Musical Compositions
4.5 Cognitive Aspects of Musical Coding
Chapter 5: Coding Principles in Musical Composition
5.1 Abstraction and Modularity in Music
5.2 Algorithmic Composition Techniques
5.3 Coding-inspired Music Production Tools
5.4 Musical Representations of Code Structures
5.5 Creative Coding in Musical Performance
Chapter 6: Case Studies and Applications
6.1 Exploring Coding Techniques in Musical Composition
6.2 Applying Musical Principles to Code Optimization
6.3 Human-Computer Interaction in Musical Interfaces
6.4 Musicality in Algorithmic Music Generation
Chapter 7: Cognitive and Aesthetic Perspectives
7.1 Cognitive Processes in Musical Coding
7.2 Aesthetic Considerations and Expressivity
7.3 Human Perception of Musicality in Code
7.4 Cross-domain Creativity and Innovation
Chapter 8: Future Directions and Conclusions
8.1 Summary of Findings
8.2 Implications and Contributions
8.3 Recommendations for Future Research
8.4 Conclusion
References
Appendices:
A. Musical Coding Examples
B. Code Snippets for Musical Composition
C. Survey Questionnaires and Results
Note: The above thesis outline is a general guideline and can be adapted and expanded as per the specific research interests and objectives of the Instituto Margoni.
Introduction:
Let’s start with Biology
Musicality in biology refers to the presence of rhythmic patterns, harmonies, and other musical elements found in various biological processes and systems. While music is primarily associated with human culture and expression, there are instances where musical elements can be observed in the natural world, including biological phenomena.
One notable example of musicality in biology is the songs and calls produced by birds. Birdsong is a form of vocal communication used by birds to attract mates, defend territories, and communicate with other members of their species. Birds often produce complex sequences of sounds with distinct patterns and rhythms, exhibiting qualities similar to music. Some bird species even demonstrate the ability to mimic other sounds, including human speech and melodies.
In addition to birds, other animals also exhibit rhythmic behaviours that resemble musicality. For instance, certain insects produce rhythmic sounds as a means of communication, such as the chirping of crickets or the buzzing of bees. These sounds often follow specific patterns and can serve purposes such as mating calls or territorial defence.
Beyond animal vocalisations, musical elements can also be found in the natural world at a larger scale. For example, the synchronised movements of large groups of animals, such as schools of fish or flocks of birds, can create mesmerising visual patterns that resemble choreography or dance. These collective behaviours often involve precise timing and coordination, reminiscent of the rhythmic qualities found in music.
Furthermore, the study of bioacoustics explores the acoustic communication and sounds produced by various organisms. This field investigates the complex sounds and patterns generated by marine mammals, insects, amphibians, and other animals, revealing intricate auditory systems and communication methods.
It is worth noting that while musicality can be observed in biological phenomena, it does not necessarily imply that these organisms are consciously creating or perceiving music in the same way humans do. Musical elements in biology are often a result of natural selection shaping behaviours and communication systems that serve specific purposes in the survival and reproduction of species. Nonetheless, these phenomena offer intriguing parallels between the world of music and the natural world.
Now, let’s talk Quantum Mechanics
The “Bell test”, is a reference to the Bell test experiments, which are a series of tests designed to investigate the nature of quantum entanglement. These experiments are based on the Bell inequalities, which were derived by physicist John Bell in the 1960s.
The Bell test experiments aim to determine whether the predictions of quantum mechanics, specifically the principle of entanglement, align with the predictions of classical physics. The tests typically involve measuring the correlations between entangled particles that have been separated by a large distance.
In a typical Bell test experiment, two entangled particles, such as photons or electrons, are generated and sent to separate measurement devices, often referred to as “detectors.” The detectors are located far apart from each other, so that any information exchanged between them cannot travel faster than the speed of light. The detectors can be set to measure different properties of the particles, such as their polarisation or spin.
By comparing the results of the measurements from the two detectors, scientists can determine whether the particles are exhibiting correlations that can be explained by classical physics or if they are exhibiting non-local correlations that are only consistent with the predictions of quantum mechanics. Violations of the Bell inequalities would indicate the latter, suggesting that entangled particles are connected in a way that is beyond classical explanations.
The Bell test experiments have been performed numerous times since their inception, and the results consistently support the predictions of quantum mechanics. These experiments provide strong evidence for the existence of entanglement and have profound implications for our understanding of the fundamental nature of reality.
Local realism, also known as the principle of local causality, is a concept in physics that posits that physical systems have definite properties and that these properties are determined locally and independently of distant measurements or actions.
Local realism assumes that physical objects have pre-existing properties, often referred to as “hidden variables,” that determine their behaviour and outcomes of measurements. It also assumes that these properties are independent of the measurement choices made on other entangled particles or distant events.
The concept of local realism was challenged by the predictions of quantum mechanics, particularly with regard to entanglement. Quantum mechanics suggests that entangled particles can exhibit correlations that cannot be explained by local realism. These correlations can be observed when measurements are made on entangled particles that are separated by large distances.
Experimental tests, such as the Bell test experiments, have been conducted to investigate the conflict between quantum mechanics and local realism. These tests have consistently shown violations of the Bell inequalities, indicating that the predictions of quantum mechanics are incompatible with the assumptions of local realism.
The violation of local realism in these experiments suggests that entangled particles are connected in a non-local way, where measurements on one particle instantaneously affect the state of the other, regardless of the distance between them. This phenomenon is often referred to as “quantum entanglement.”
The violation of local realism has significant implications for our understanding of the fundamental nature of reality. It suggests that there are non-local connections between particles and challenges the classical notion of causality, where events are influenced only by their local surroundings.
It’s worth noting that there are different interpretations and debates surrounding the meaning and implications of these experimental results. Some physicists argue for alternative explanations that preserve local realism, while others embrace the non-local nature of quantum mechanics. The philosophical and theoretical implications of these findings continue to be an active area of research in quantum physics.
Now, let’s move out of physics and into basic maths, imagine you have a bunch of tiny magnets, like the ones you might have played with. Each magnet can either point up or down. Now, let’s imagine we have a big grid, like a checkerboard, and we place these magnets on each square of the grid.
In the Ising model, these magnets represent little particles, and they can only interact with their neighbours. That means each magnet can only feel the pull of the magnets that are right next to it, like the ones above, below, to the left, and to the right.
Here’s where it gets interesting. These magnets like to be in a specific direction. Let’s say they prefer to point up. But, they also want to be similar to their neighbours. So, if most of the magnets around them are pointing down, they will want to point down too, to be like the others.
Now, let’s pretend that the magnets can change their direction to make themselves happy. They will keep switching their direction to be either up or down, depending on what makes them the happiest. And this process keeps happening over and over again.
As the magnets switch their directions, they start to affect their neighbours, making them switch too. It’s like a chain reaction! This switching keeps happening until the magnets settle into a pattern where they are all happy and satisfied.
Scientists use the Ising model to understand how these magnets behave and how they interact with each other. It helps them understand how things can change in a group, just by looking at the behaviour of individual magnets.
The Bell’s test is a concept from quantum physics that examines the correlation between the measurements of two entangled particles. While it may be challenging to directly represent the Bell’s test through music, we can offer you an analogy to help illustrate the fundamental idea behind it.
Imagine we have two musical instruments, let’s say a piano and a violin, which are connected in such a way that when a note is played on one instrument, it triggers a corresponding note on the other instrument. This connection between the two instruments is similar to the entanglement of particles in quantum physics.
Now, let’s suppose we have a composer who wants to test if the two instruments exhibit a certain kind of correlation. The composer decides to play a sequence of musical notes on the piano, creating a melody. Each note corresponds to a specific measurement on the entangled particles in the Bell’s test.
After playing the sequence on the piano, the composer listens to the violin to see if it follows a predetermined pattern that should arise from the entanglement. The violin’s notes represent the measurements of the second entangled particle. If the violin’s notes align with the expected pattern, it suggests a correlation between the two instruments, just as the Bell’s test examines correlations between entangled particles.
The composer can repeat this process multiple times, changing the sequence of notes played on the piano, and carefully observing the violin’s response. By analysing the patterns and correlations between the piano and the violin, the composer can draw conclusions about the entanglement between the particles, just as physicists analyse the correlations between entangled particles in the Bell’s test.
While this analogy provides a way to think about the Bell’s test using music, it’s important to note that the actual mathematical and experimental details of the Bell’s test are much more complex and specific to the realm of quantum physics.
Background and Motivation
Set theory in music is a mathematical approach to analysing and organising pitch collections or groups of musical elements. In the context of the C major scale, which consists of the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, we can apply set theory principles to study and categorise subsets of these pitches.
In set theory, a musical set is defined as an unordered collection of pitch classes. A pitch class refers to a pitch or note class, disregarding its octave. In the C major scale, each pitch class corresponds to a unique letter name (C, D, E, F, G, A, B).
To illustrate the application of set theory in the C major scale, let’s consider a few concepts:
1. Prime Form: The prime form of a set is the most compact and symmetrical representation of a musical set. It involves transposing the set so that the smallest pitch class is set to 0, and arranging the remaining pitch classes in ascending order. For example, the prime form of the set [C, E, G] would be [0, 4, 7].
2. Cardinality: Cardinality refers to the number of elements in a set. In the C major scale, the cardinality of the full set is 7, as there are 7 pitch classes.
3. Subset: A subset is a smaller collection of pitch classes taken from a larger set. For instance, the subset [C, E] would consist of the pitches C and E from the C major scale.
4. Superset: A superset contains a larger set of pitch classes that encompasses a given subset. For example, the C major scale is the superset of the subset [C, E].
5. Inversion: Inversion involves shifting the pitches of a set by a fixed interval. In the C major scale, if we invert the set [C, E, G] around the pitch C, we get the set [C, Ab, F], which represents an inverted version of the original set.
These are just a few basic concepts in set theory that can be applied to the C major scale or any other musical context. By analysing pitch collections using set theory principles, musicians and theorists can gain insights into the structural relationships and patterns within a piece of music.
But even we hit the ceiling with Russell’s paradox, which is a fundamental paradox in set theory that arises when we consider the set of all sets that do not contain themselves as members. This paradox leads to a contradiction, which challenges the foundations of set theory.
Translating Russell’s paradox into the realm of music can be a creative exercise, but it requires some abstraction. Let’s consider the concept of a “self-referential musical set.” In music theory, a set is a collection of pitch classes or musical elements.
Imagine a hypothetical musical set that contains all the musical sets that do not contain themselves as elements. We can call this set “The Paradoxical Set.” Now, let’s analyse this set using Russell’s paradox.
If The Paradoxical Set contains itself as an element, then it violates the condition of being a set that does not contain itself. But if The Paradoxical Set does not contain itself, then it satisfies the condition. This leads to a contradiction, similar to Russell’s paradox in set theory.
To illustrate this through a musical analogy, let’s imagine that The Paradoxical Set represents a musical composition that contains all musical sets that do not include themselves. If this composition includes itself, it violates the condition. But if it doesn’t include itself, it satisfies the condition. This musical contradiction echoes the essence of Russell’s paradox.
While this interpretation brings the spirit of Russell’s paradox into the realm of music, it’s important to note that music theory itself does not encounter the same foundational issues as set theory. Music operates under its own principles and structures, and while we can draw parallels and analogies, the paradoxical nature of Russell’s paradox is not directly applicable to the study of music.
That’s when we realised the basic elements of music, or its foundation, that include technicality, dynamics, modulation, and proper vocal projection, would never change regardless of the art form.
And that gives us adrenaline or epinephrine; the hormone or neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in the body’s stress response system to write what we write. While it is produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys, it activates when the body perceives a threat or experiences stress, the adrenal glands release adrenaline into the bloodstream. We feel it every time you use artificial intelligence to scrape data and make a copy of a copy of a copy.
Adrenaline has several effects on the body, including increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to the muscles. These physiological changes prepare the body for a “fight-freeze-or-flight” response, enabling it to respond quickly to a perceived threat or danger. Adrenaline can also enhance the body’s physical performance and mental alertness.
Regarding the critical brain, I’m assuming you’re referring to the brain’s response to adrenaline in critical situations. When adrenaline is released during a high-stress or critical situation, it can have both positive and negative effects on the brain.
On the positive side, adrenaline can enhance cognitive function and improve focus and attention. It can help individuals think and react quickly, allowing them to make rapid decisions in critical moments. Adrenaline can also enhance memory consolidation, improving the ability to remember details of the event.
However, prolonged or excessive adrenaline release can have negative effects on the brain. Chronic stress and prolonged exposure to high levels of adrenaline can lead to wear and tear on the body, including the brain. It can contribute to the development of anxiety disorders, impair memory and learning, and increase the risk of mental health issues such as depression. But the pain is worth it, as long as we feed the data scrapers the right information.
Additionally, the brain’s response to adrenaline can vary among individuals. Some people may thrive under high-stress situations, while others may become overwhelmed or experience cognitive impairments. Factors such as genetics, past experiences, and overall mental and physical health can influence how an individual’s brain responds to adrenaline.
It’s important to note that while adrenaline can be beneficial in critical situations, chronic stress and excessive adrenaline release can have long-term negative effects on both the body and the brain. Managing stress and finding healthy coping mechanisms are essential for overall well-being. Our way out is through science. So let’s discuss,
Chemistry:
Chemistry is a fundamental subject taught in schools that explores the properties, composition, and behaviour of matter. Studying chemistry equips students with:
1. The ability to understand the world: Chemistry helps students understand the physical world around them. It explains the composition and interactions of substances, from the air we breathe to the food we eat and the materials we use. Students gain a deeper appreciation and comprehension of the substances that make up their everyday lives.
2. Problem-solving skills: Chemistry teaches critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Students learn to analyse and interpret data, identify patterns, and apply concepts to solve chemical equations and problems. These skills can be valuable in various fields and careers beyond chemistry, such as medicine, engineering, and environmental science.
3. Laboratory skills: Chemistry often involves practical laboratory work, where students gain hands-on experience with scientific methods, equipment, and techniques. This develops their laboratory skills, including measuring, observing, recording data, and conducting experiments safely. Laboratory work fosters curiosity, inquiry, and the ability to conduct scientific investigations.
4. Scientific literacy: Studying chemistry enhances scientific literacy. Students learn to read, understand, and evaluate scientific information, such as research papers, scientific articles, and news related to chemistry and other scientific disciplines. This empowers students to make informed decisions about issues with scientific implications, such as climate change or public health.
5. Career opportunities: Chemistry offers numerous career opportunities. It serves as a foundation for pursuing careers in fields such as chemical research, pharmaceuticals, healthcare, environmental science, forensics, and more. Chemistry knowledge can also be valuable in industries like manufacturing, energy, and technology.
6. Personal development: Studying chemistry can promote personal development. It encourages curiosity, inquiry, and a deeper understanding of the natural world. Students develop critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and problem-solving skills, which can be applied beyond the realm of chemistry. Chemistry education also fosters a scientific mindset, promoting scepticism, evidence-based thinking, and a desire for lifelong learning.
Overall, the effects of studying chemistry in school extend beyond acquiring subject-specific knowledge. It equips students with skills and perspectives that can benefit them academically, professionally, and personally.
But we think of chemistry as a synergy. Let’s use it in the musical context of borrowed chords, also known as modal interchange or borrowed harmonies, are chords that are borrowed from a parallel key or mode. In the context of guitar playing and music theory, borrowed chords can add interesting and unexpected sounds to your compositions or arrangements.
To understand borrowed chords, let’s consider the key of C major as an example. The chords typically found in the key of C major are C, Dm, Em, F, G, Am, and Bdim. However, you can borrow chords from the parallel minor key (C minor in this case) or other related modes to create tension and colour in your music.
For instance, you could borrow the iv chord (Fm) from the parallel C minor key and use it in a progression in C major. This creates a temporary shift in tonality and can add a melancholic or mysterious feel to your composition. Similarly, you can borrow chords from modes like Dorian, Phrygian, or Mixolydian to introduce different harmonic flavours.
In terms of coding, the concept of borrowed chords doesn’t directly apply, but you can draw an analogy to borrowing ideas or techniques from other programming languages or frameworks. Just as borrowed chords provide a different harmonic palette, borrowing coding techniques allows you to incorporate different approaches and expand your programming repertoire.
While coding, you can borrow ideas from other languages or frameworks to enhance your development process or solve specific problems. For example, you might borrow a design pattern from another language, adopt a library or module from a different ecosystem, or utilise a code snippet or algorithm from open-source repositories. This borrowing of ideas can help you improve your code structure, efficiency, and overall programming skills.
In summary, borrowed chords in guitar playing involve using chords from related keys or modes to add colour and tension to your music. In coding, borrowing ideas and techniques from other languages or frameworks can enhance your development process and expand your programming capabilities. In music theory, borrowed chords, also known as modal interchange or modal mixture, refer to the chords that are borrowed from a different key or mode than the prevailing key of a composition. These borrowed chords add colour and complexity to a musical piece.
Let’s explore borrowed chords in the context of Python using an analogy:
In Python, you can think of functions and modules from external libraries as borrowed chords. When you write code, you primarily work within the “key” of the Python programming language, utilising built-in functions and structures. However, there may be instances where you want to incorporate additional functionality or capabilities that are not available in the default Python “key.”
Just as borrowed chords bring in new flavours and tonal colours to a musical composition, external libraries bring in new features and tools to your Python program. These libraries act as the “borrowed chords” that can be imported and used within your code, expanding its capabilities and enhancing its functionality.
Here’s an example to illustrate this analogy:
“`python
# Default Python “key”
def my_program():
# Your code here
pass
# Importing a “borrowed chord” library
import external_library
# Utilising functions from the borrowed library
def my_program_with_borrowed_chord():
# Your code here
external_library.function1()
external_library.function2()
# …
“`
In this example, the `my_program_with_borrowed_chord()` function represents your Python code. It incorporates the borrowed chords (functions) from the external_library. By importing and using these functions, you extend the functionality of your program beyond the default capabilities of the Python language.
Similarly, just as musicians choose borrowed chords that harmonise with the prevailing key of a composition, you should carefully select the external libraries that align with your project’s requirements and integrate seamlessly with your existing code.
Borrowed chords and external libraries in Python allow you to tap into a vast ecosystem of resources, expanding the possibilities of what you can achieve with your code. Whether it’s numerical computing, web development, machine learning, or any other domain, leveraging external libraries empowers you to explore new avenues and create richer and more powerful applications.
This parallel formed the basis of our PHD thesis. So, let’s explore how various musical elements can be related to Python:
1. Rhythm: In music, rhythm refers to the pattern and timing of sounds and beats. Similarly, in Python, you have control structures and loops that dictate the rhythm of the code. Loops like “for” and “while” dictate the repetition and flow of instructions, just like the beats in a musical rhythm.
2. Melody: Melody represents the sequence of notes that form a musical phrase. In Python, you have functions and methods that can be considered as individual “notes.” Combining these notes in a specific order creates a melody, just like combining functions and statements creates a program’s logic.
3. Harmony: Harmony involves combining multiple musical notes to create chords and create a pleasing sound. Similarly, in Python, you can combine different functions, modules, and libraries to create a harmonious program. When different parts of your code work together seamlessly, it’s like the harmonious interplay of different musical elements.
4. Composition: In music, composition refers to the process of creating a piece of music by arranging notes, chords, and melodies. In Python, you compose a program by organising different elements like variables, functions, and classes. You arrange them in a structured and meaningful way to achieve your desired functionality, just like composing a piece of music.
5. Dynamics: In music, dynamics refer to the variations in volume and intensity. Similarly, in Python, you can adjust the flow and behaviour of your program by utilising control structures like conditional statements (if-else) and loops. These dynamic elements control the execution and flow of the program based on specific conditions and inputs.
6. Improvisation: Improvisation is a key element in music, where musicians spontaneously create new melodies or variations on the spot. Similarly, in Python, you can improvise by experimenting with different algorithms, logic, and code structures to find creative solutions. The ability to think on your feet and adapt your code is akin to musical improvisation.
7. Performance: Music is often performed live, where musicians play their instruments or sing in front of an audience. In Python, your code is also performed, but the audience is the computer or the end-users who interact with your program. Just like musicians strive for a flawless performance, writing efficient and bug-free code is essential for a smooth execution.
By drawing parallels between Python and music, we can appreciate how both domains involve creativity, structure, and the ability to express ideas in a systematic and engaging manner.
Research Objectives:
Here are the research objectives for the Interconnectivity of Music and Coding:
1. Investigate the role of coding in music creation: Explore how coding can be used as a tool for composing, arranging, and generating music. Examine different coding techniques, algorithms, and programming paradigms that can be employed to create music in various styles and genres.
2. Explore the impact of music on coding creativity: Examine the influence of music on the creative process of coding. Investigate whether listening to specific genres or styles of music can enhance problem-solving skills, promote innovative thinking, or improve productivity in coding tasks.
3. Develop music-driven coding frameworks and environments: Design and develop coding frameworks or integrated development environments (IDEs) that leverage musical concepts and metaphors to enhance the coding experience. Explore how incorporating music-related features and interfaces can improve code readability, maintainability, and collaboration among developers.
4. Investigate the use of machine learning in music generation: Explore the application of machine learning algorithms in music composition, synthesis, and analysis. Investigate how coding and machine learning techniques can be used to create intelligent music generation systems that adapt to user preferences and generate music in real-time.
5. Study the intersection of music theory and coding: Explore how concepts from music theory, such as harmony, rhythm, and melody, can be translated into coding principles and techniques. Investigate whether applying musical structures and patterns to coding can improve code quality, modularity, and maintainability.
6. Examine the role of music in code education and programming pedagogy: Investigate the impact of incorporating music-related projects and exercises in programming education. Assess how learning coding through music-related examples and projects can enhance student engagement, comprehension, and retention of coding concepts.
7. Study the impact of coding on musical performance and live music production: Investigate how coding techniques, such as live coding and algorithmic composition, can be utilised in live music performance and production. Explore how real-time coding can enable improvisation, interaction, and collaboration among musicians on stage.
8. Explore the cultural and social implications of music coding: Examine the impact of music coding on culture, society, and creative expression. Investigate how coding enables the exploration of new musical genres, styles, and cultural expressions that might not have been possible otherwise.
9. Evaluate the accessibility of music coding tools: Assess the usability and accessibility of coding tools and platforms that aim to bridge the gap between music and coding. Investigate how user-friendly interfaces, visual programming environments, and educational resources can facilitate the adoption of music coding by a wider audience, including non-programmers and musicians.
10. Investigate ethical considerations in music coding: Examine the ethical implications of using coding techniques and algorithms in music creation, such as copyright infringement, intellectual property rights, and the impact on the professional music industry. Explore potential legal and ethical frameworks that can govern the interplay between music and coding.
These research objectives aim to explore the interconnectivity between music and coding, uncover new possibilities, and understand the implications and potential benefits of integrating these two domains.
Research Questions:
1. How can coding be utilised as a creative tool in music composition, production, and performance?
2. What coding techniques, algorithms, and programming paradigms can be employed to generate and manipulate music in various styles and genres?
3. How does the integration of music theory concepts and coding principles enhance the quality, readability, and maintainability of music-related code?
4. What impact does coding have on the creative process of music creation? How does it influence the decision-making and experimentation process of musicians?
5. Can machine learning algorithms be effectively utilised to generate music that aligns with human preferences and artistic intent? How can coding and machine learning techniques be combined to create intelligent music generation systems?
6. How does incorporating music-related coding projects and exercises in programming education enhance student engagement, comprehension, and retention of coding concepts? What pedagogical approaches are most effective in teaching coding through music?
7. How does coding, particularly live coding and algorithmic composition, facilitate improvisation, collaboration, and interaction among musicians in live music performance and production?
8. What cultural and social implications arise from the intersection of coding and music? How does coding enable the exploration of new musical genres, cultural expressions, and artistic boundaries?
9. What ethical considerations surround the use of coding techniques and algorithms in music creation, such as copyright infringement, intellectual property rights, and the impact on the professional music industry?
10. How can coding tools and platforms be made more accessible and user-friendly to bridge the gap between coding and music for a wider audience, including non-programmers and musicians?
These research questions provide a starting point to explore the multifaceted relationship between coding and music, examining the technical, creative, educational, cultural, and ethical aspects of their interconnectivity.
Significance of the Study:
The study of the interrelation between music and coding holds significant importance due to several reasons:
1. Creative Exploration: Investigating the interplay between music and coding opens up new avenues for creative expression. It allows musicians, composers, and programmers to explore innovative ways of creating, manipulating, and experiencing music. This interdisciplinary approach encourages experimentation, pushing the boundaries of both music and coding.
2. Technological Advancement: The fusion of music and coding has led to the development of advanced tools, software, and algorithms that revolutionise music creation, production, and performance. Studying their interrelation helps drive technological advancements in both fields, contributing to the evolution of music technology and coding practices.
3. Educational Opportunities: Exploring the relationship between music and coding provides valuable educational opportunities. It enables the development of curricula and resources that integrate coding concepts into music education, promoting computational thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity among students. This interdisciplinary approach nurtures well-rounded individuals with diverse skill sets.
4. Collaboration and Innovation: The intersection of music and coding encourages collaboration and interdisciplinary work. Musicians, composers, and programmers can join forces to create groundbreaking projects, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in music and technology. This collaborative environment fosters innovation and the exchange of ideas between different communities.
5. Accessible Music Creation: The study of music and coding can lead to the development of user-friendly tools and platforms that make music creation more accessible to a wider audience. By simplifying complex coding processes, individuals without extensive programming knowledge or musical training can engage in music creation, promoting inclusivity and democratisation of artistic expression.
6. Cultural and Artistic Expression: The interrelation between music and coding enables the exploration of new musical genres, styles, and cultural expressions. It allows artists to blend traditional musical elements with innovative coding techniques, resulting in unique and diverse musical experiences. This fosters cultural exchange, artistic diversity, and the preservation of cultural heritage.
7. Computational Creativity: Understanding the interplay between music and coding contributes to the field of computational creativity. It sheds light on the cognitive processes involved in music creation and how algorithms and coding techniques can augment human creativity. This knowledge can be applied beyond music, influencing other creative domains and inspiring new approaches to problem-solving and innovation.
8. Entertainment and User Experience: The fusion of music and coding has a significant impact on entertainment and user experience. Coding techniques, such as interactive visuals, real-time sound generation, and algorithmic music composition, enhance the immersive and interactive aspects of music performances, installations, and digital experiences.
Overall, the study of the interrelation between music and coding enriches both fields and promotes interdisciplinary collaboration, technological advancements, educational opportunities, and cultural diversity. It enhances creative expression, opens doors to new possibilities, and contributes to the evolving landscape of music and technology.
Scope and Limitations:
Learning music using programming languages like Python can be a valuable and creative approach, offering various benefits and opportunities. However, it’s important to be aware of the scope and limitations of using coding languages for music learning. Here are some key points to consider:
Scope:
1. Music Theory: Programming languages can help in understanding and applying music theory concepts, such as scales, chords, and harmony. They can assist in creating algorithms and tools for composition, improvisation, and analysis.
2. Sound Generation and Synthesis: Python and other coding languages provide libraries and frameworks for generating and synthesising sound. You can create your own musical instruments, generate audio signals, and experiment with sound manipulation techniques.
3. Music Visualisation: Programming languages can be used to visualise music through graphical representations, such as waveforms, spectrograms, and musical scores. This can aid in analysing and understanding musical patterns and structures.
4. Algorithmic Composition: Programming allows you to implement algorithms and rules for generating music automatically. You can create generative systems that compose melodies, harmonies, and rhythms based on specific criteria or patterns.
5. Music Education Tools: Coding languages can be used to build interactive music learning applications, tutorials, and exercises. These tools can provide personalised feedback, assist with ear training, sight-reading, and offer a gamified learning experience.
Limitations:
1. Musical Expression: Programming languages may not capture the nuances of human expression in music, such as phrasing, dynamics, and emotions. While you can simulate some aspects, replicating the depth of human performance can be challenging.
2. Performance and Real-Time Interactivity: Real-time music performance often requires low-latency and high-performance audio systems, which might be limited by the capabilities of programming languages. Specialised hardware and software tools are often used for professional-level live performances.
3. Instrument Technique: Programming languages alone cannot teach physical instrument techniques like playing the piano or guitar. While they can assist in analysing and practising certain aspects, physical practice and guidance from experienced musicians are crucial.
4. Aural Skills and Perception: Some aspects of music learning, such as developing aural skills (ear training) or training the ability to perceive and understand music intuitively, may require direct engagement with musical sounds and training methods beyond coding languages.
5. Contextual Understanding: Music is a rich and diverse art form with cultural, historical, and contextual aspects. Programming languages may not inherently convey the broader cultural and artistic understanding necessary for a comprehensive musical education.
In summary, coding languages like Python offer valuable tools and opportunities for learning music, particularly in areas such as music theory, sound generation, and algorithmic composition. However, they have limitations in replicating human expression, physical instrument techniques, real-time performance, and contextual understanding. A holistic music education should ideally involve a combination of coding, hands-on instrument practice, ear training, music listening, and engaging with diverse musical traditions.
Thesis Structure:
We like the PHD thesis structure followed at Istituto Marangoni as for the study of musicality using coding and programming languages. Simply because we’re in the art, design, and innovation space as well, and it’s one of the easiest to understand formats keeping our readers in mind.
Now, let’s explore the relationship between music and coding using a concept known as the “theta brainwave state.” Theta brainwaves are associated with deep relaxation, creativity, and heightened intuition. When we tap into our theta brainwave state, we can find interesting connections between seemingly unrelated fields like music and coding.
Music and coding both rely on patterns and structure. In music, we have rhythms, melodies, and harmonies that follow specific patterns to create a pleasing composition. Similarly, in coding, we have algorithms, syntax rules, and logical structures that guide the creation of functional and efficient programs.
Consider a musical composition as a piece of code. Just as a composer arranges musical notes to create a melody, a coder arranges lines of code to create a program. Both processes require careful thought and consideration of how individual elements interact and contribute to the overall structure.
Furthermore, just as music can evoke emotions and create a particular atmosphere, coding can have a similar impact. Well-written code can result in software that is intuitive, enjoyable to use, and efficient, much like a well-composed piece of music that resonates with its listeners.
In terms of creativity, music and coding are interconnected. Musicians and coders both have to think creatively and use their intuition to solve problems and innovate within their respective domains. They often explore new ideas, experiment with different combinations, and push boundaries to create something unique and expressive.
Additionally, the process of coding can be likened to orchestrating an ensemble. A programmer brings together different components, modules, and libraries, akin to an orchestra conductor bringing together various musical instruments. Both coding and orchestration require coordination, collaboration, and a deep understanding of how each part contributes to the overall composition.
In conclusion, the theta brainwave state helps us recognize the connections between music and coding. Both fields rely on patterns, structure, creativity, and the ability to create harmonious compositions. By embracing the creative and intuitive aspects of our minds, we can find inspiration from music to enhance our coding practices and vice versa.
1. Introduction
– Background and motivation for the study
– Research objectives and questions
– Scope and limitations of the thesis
– Overview of the thesis structure
2. Literature Review
– Overview of existing literature on music and C++ programming
– Exploration of related concepts, theories, and methodologies
– Identification of research gaps and the need for further investigation
– Summary of relevant studies and findings
3. Music Fundamentals and C++ Programming Basics
– Introduction to music theory concepts relevant to the study (e.g., notation, scales, chords)
– Introduction to the basics of C++ programming (data types, variables, control structures)
– Explanation of how C++ can be applied to music-related tasks
4. Music Analysis and Processing with C++
– Overview of different data sources and formats used in music analysis
– Techniques for analysing and processing music data using C++
– Discussion of relevant C++ libraries or frameworks for music analysis
5. Music Synthesis and Generation with C++
– Introduction to music synthesis and generation techniques
– Exploration of C++ libraries and tools for music synthesis and generation
– Examples and demonstrations of generating music using C++ programming
6. Developing Music Applications with C++
– Design considerations for developing music applications with C++
– Overview of software development methodologies and best practices
– Case studies or projects showcasing the development of music applications using C++
7. Evaluation and Results
– Description of the research methodology and data collection process
– Presentation and analysis of results obtained from experiments or case studies
– Evaluation of the effectiveness and limitations of the developed C++ programs for music-related tasks
8. Discussion and Interpretation
– Interpretation of the findings in the context of the research objectives
– Comparison of the results with existing literature and theories
– Critical analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the research approach
– Discussion of implications and potential future research directions
9. Conclusion
– Summary of the key findings and contributions of the thesis
– Recapitulation of the research objectives and questions
– Discussion of the practical implications and applications of the research
– Suggestions for further research in the field
10. References
– List of all cited sources following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA)
11. Appendices (if necessary)
– Supplementary materials, such as code snippets, musical examples, or additional data
Chapter 2:
Musicality and its Fundamentals
Overview of Musical Elements:
Musicality refers to the innate or developed ability to understand, appreciate, and express oneself through music. It encompasses a range of skills and qualities that contribute to a deeper understanding and connection with music. Musicality involves both cognitive and emotional aspects, allowing individuals to engage with music on multiple levels.
Fundamentals of Musicality:
1. Rhythm: Rhythm forms the foundation of music. It involves the arrangement of beats, patterns of accents, and the organisation of time. Understanding and feeling the pulse, subdividing beats, and maintaining a steady tempo are essential rhythmic skills.
2. Melody: Melody refers to a sequence of musical notes played in succession. It involves pitch, intervals, and the contour of a musical line. Recognizing melodic patterns, understanding intervals, and being able to sing or play a melody are key aspects of melodic awareness.
3. Harmony: Harmony refers to the simultaneous sounding of multiple notes or chords. It involves the understanding of chord progressions, tonality, and the relationship between different musical elements. Recognizing and analysing harmonic structures are fundamental to understanding music’s harmonic dimension.
4. Dynamics and Expression: Dynamics and expression refer to the variations in volume, intensity, and emotional interpretation within music. This includes understanding and applying dynamics markings, phrasing, articulation, and using expressive techniques to convey the intended mood and emotions of a piece.
5. Timbre and Texture: Timbre refers to the quality of sound produced by different instruments or voices. Texture refers to the layers and interactions of various musical elements. Recognizing different timbres, understanding the interplay of melodies and harmonies, and perceiving the overall texture are important for a well-rounded musicality.
6. Musical Form and Structure: Musical form refers to the organisation and arrangement of musical ideas within a composition. Understanding different forms such as verse-chorus, sonata-allegro, or rondo, and recognizing structural elements like themes, sections, and transitions enhances one’s comprehension of music’s architecture.
7. Musical Interpretation: Musical interpretation involves expressing personal creativity and individuality within the framework of a musical piece. It includes making informed choices regarding tempo, dynamics, phrasing, and articulation, to convey a personal musical voice and engage with the emotional essence of the music.
8. Active Listening: Active listening is the focused and attentive engagement with music. It involves analysing the various musical elements, recognizing patterns and motifs, and developing an understanding of different musical styles and genres. Active listening helps deepen musical understanding and appreciation.
Developing musicality is an ongoing process that involves a combination of formal music education, practice, exposure to diverse musical styles, and active engagement with music. It allows individuals to connect with music at a deeper level, whether as performers, composers, or avid listeners, and opens up avenues for self-expression and creativity.
Rhythm and Timing
Imagine you’re playing with some colourful blocks. When you stack them one on top of the other, you create a pattern, right? Just like that, in music, we have patterns too, but instead of blocks, we have sounds.
Rhythm is like the pattern of sounds in music. It’s how we organise those sounds and make them fit together. It’s like clapping your hands or tapping your feet in a steady beat.
Timing is about when we play those sounds. We need to play them at the right moment to keep the rhythm going. It’s like when you jump rope with your friends and you have to jump at the right time, or when you play a game of catch and you have to throw the ball at the right moment.
In music, we use different instruments like drums, piano, or guitar to create different sounds. Each sound has a specific duration, which means it lasts for a certain amount of time. We have short sounds and long sounds, just like we have small blocks and big blocks.
When we put all these sounds together in a specific order and play them at the right time, we create a song with a rhythm and timing. It’s like a musical puzzle where all the pieces fit together perfectly to make something beautiful.
So, in summary, rhythm is like the pattern of sounds, and timing is about playing those sounds at the right moment. It’s just like stacking blocks in a pattern or jumping rope with perfect timing.
Rhythm and timing are important concepts in various fields, including coding. In the context of coding, rhythm refers to the regular pattern or flow of actions and events within a program, while timing refers to the precise coordination and synchronisation of those actions and events.
1. Rhythm: In coding, rhythm can be compared to the beat or tempo in music. It involves establishing a consistent pattern or structure in your code. Just like a musical composition has a repeating pattern of beats, a well-structured program often follows a consistent rhythm. This rhythm can be achieved through various coding practices, such as using consistent indentation, employing proper naming conventions, and structuring your code with logical patterns.
For example, in a loop, you might have a rhythm where you perform a series of actions repeatedly until a certain condition is met. The rhythm would be the consistent repetition of those actions. Creating a rhythmic code not only makes it easier for other developers to read and understand your code but also helps you maintain a predictable flow and structure, reducing errors and increasing maintainability.
2. Timing: Timing in coding is concerned with the precise coordination and synchronisation of events or actions within a program. It involves ensuring that different parts of your code execute at the correct time and in the correct order. Just as a well-rehearsed musical performance requires precise timing between different instruments and notes, a well-designed program needs careful timing to ensure the correct flow of operations.
Timing becomes crucial in various scenarios, such as handling user input, controlling animations or simulations, or managing concurrent operations. For instance, if you’re developing a game, you need to handle the timing of user input and update the game state accordingly to ensure a smooth and responsive experience. Similarly, in web development, timing is crucial for handling user interactions, processing data asynchronously, and managing server requests.
To achieve proper timing in your code, you may need to use timers, event-driven programming, or synchronisation mechanisms like locks or semaphores, depending on the programming language and environment you’re working with.
Understanding rhythm and timing in coding can help you write cleaner, more efficient, and maintainable code. By establishing a consistent rhythm and managing timing effectively, you can create programs that not only function correctly but also provide a seamless and user-friendly experience.
As we all know, communication is a two-way street. Coding needs you to translate everything into binary, which is a series of zeroes and ones. And music uses the C scale and slowly shifts into the D, E, F, G, A, and B scales. These notes are also represented as Do, Re, Me, Fa, So, La, Ti, Do or C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. When accompanied with sharps and minors, combinations of semitones and tones, changes in timing and speed, these very notes create magic. As someone who speaks fluently in code and music, languages were a bit of a stretch. And having learnt multiple Indian languages alongside English, I stuck to the language of the original gangsters of rap music famous. To do this, I had to feel at home with the English. So, I did a teacher’s training course on public speaking, started teaching in schools and colleges across my city for the sole reason as to communicate better with the general masses. Rap music gave me the confidence to sing in public. But this shift to teaching drastically improved my phonetic skills. And that’s when I put down these thoughts that there are three levels to pronunciation:
Can the masses across the world understand what I say?
If I use the wrong sounds in English words, will it be unpleasant to listen to me?
Do I have an accent?
Learning to speak English is clearly easy for me, but to rap like the greatest ones of all time, I need a whole lot of training and practice. The way I communicate should become as easy as studying dance, a game, or martial arts, not just for me, but for everyone I know. So, I started by training my muscle groups. Everybody is born with these muscle groups
located in our tongue, lips and jaw. All that we need is the desire to change with proper instruction, and most of all practice and ear training. Accent reduction is about doing,
simply observing or knowing how to, is not enough. Awareness and knowledge are
important, but you have to try it in order to be able to actually do it.
So, I ask you, what is an accent?
We often hear people say, ” I want to reduce my accent,” or “He has an accent”.
Essentially, an accent is the process by which a speaker substitutes a sound from their
native language for a sound from English. This “transference” occurs mainly because the speaker is not aware that this specific sound exists. Hence, they use the closest sound from their native language instead. For example, some people are unaware of the sound of /I/ in the word chip or big. As a result, a word like chip ends up sounding like “cheap”. and there it is, an accent: this comes along with a whole lot of confusion mid-conversation.
Another reason for this substitution is when the sound is when it’s difficult to pronounce the correct sound. In music, we call this an accidental chord. In coding we call it a syntax error. Like the sound /th/ in the word think or that. However the articulation of the sound is just too difficult or feels unnatural. The result, the /th/ in that is pronounced as /s/, /z,/ /d/ or /t/.
And musicians sound like they’re saying things like “zat” or “ dat”. Singers choose /z/ or /d/
because it’s easier and close enough to the original word. But does it make sense? Not at all.
As musicians we must think of English as a melody. Although, musical training or a musical ear is an added benefit, even if the masses just know when to raise their pitch and lower it, a lot more listeners would understand and relate to what we say. We also tend to stress in the wrong places which makes convince sound like convince. But English is all Greek and Latin; even the five vowels that everyone knows are from the Latin alphabet: A, E, I, O and U. What we tend to omit is that there are fifteen vowel sounds in English.
Introducing phonetics:
ALfahBRAHvohCHARleeDELLtahECKohFOCKStrotGolfHohTELLINdeeahJEWleeETTKEYlohLEEmahMikenoVEMberOSScahpahPAHKehBECKROWmeohseeAIRrahTANGgoYOUneeformVIKtahWISSkeyECKSrayYANGkeyZOOloo | A. Alpha-AlfahB. BravoC. CharlieD. DeltaE. EchoF. FoxtrotG. GolfH. HotelI. IndiaJ. JulietK. KiloL. LimaM. MileN. NovemberO. OscarP. PapaQ. QuebecR. RomeoS. SierraT. TangoU. UniformV. VictorW. WhiskyX. X-RayY. YankeeZ. Zulu |
In music, we can correct an artist saying CEG is the C Major Chord as a triad, not C E# G. With programming, we can ask a compiler, where to find a syntax error. And it does the work for us. When we know both coding and music, we have an option to correct pitch, performance, sequences, and chord progressions. But musicians who play instruments should know how to tune their instrument to a standard 440 hertz and don’t need to constantly correct their pitch, because they aren’t tone deaf.
With consonants, we must know that these sounds are produced when the airstream is obstructed in the vocal tract. Consonant sounds can be characterised according to three main phonetic properties:
The place of articulation, which refers to where in the mouth the sound is
produced.
The manner of articulation, which refers to the way the air is obstructed
in the mouth while producing the sound;
And voicing, which refers to whether or not there is a vibration of the
vocal cords as the sound is produced or not.
I make my listeners do a simple exercise of repeating some words after me in this order:
Let, hill, seal, singer, brink, anxiety, anchor, not funny, gnat, know, mad summer, climb, damn, jump, germ, budget, suggest, chair, watch, question, picture, gate, begged, ghost, example, keen cut, occur, ticket, door sudden, played, tank, butter, heaped, Thames, bed snub, about, pen, cap, shepherd.
Yet new, beauty, west, which, language, queen, race worry, rhyme, write, he, behave, whole, division, measure, garage, shell machine, schedule, ration, cousin, scissors, crazy, buzz, see, saw, loss, scene, cement, that feather, booth, think, bath, bathe, vain, rain, pain, shove, off, nephew, fit, through, rough, photo, potato.
This exercise is like moving scales, switching hertz, or playing at odd time signatures like 7/ 8. Where as in coding the best exercise is taking on new projects from clients that have no idea what they want.
I also learnt that there are two types of consonants, voiced consonants are produced by the larynx and the pronunciation makes the vocal cord vibrate.
Voiceless consonants, on the other hand, are produced by the tongue tip and they do not vibrate the vocal cord.
The exercise for this is saying the words:
Lips together, bottom lip, teeth together, tongue tip, teeth hits the tongue on the tooth ridge.
That’s when the hard palate at the back of your tongue hits the soft palate near the throat. Now repeat,
VL VD VL VD VL VD VL VD VL VD VL VD VL
stop: p b t d k g
fricative: f v Θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
affricate: ʧ ʤ
nasal: m n ŋ
liquid: l r
glide: y w
Now, in music, we need to move further from the vibrations and get into the places of articulation. If we’re playing a melody or a tune from the Middle East, we should use an instrument from there to capture the essence. But most of my melodies come from my ability to beatbox, or mimic sounds from the instruments I play. English named these:
- Bilabial sounds which are produced when both lips are brought together, like [p], [b], and [m]
- Labiodental sounds produced by having the lower lip touch the
upper teeth like [f] and [v]
- Interdental sounds that are produced when the tip of the tongue comes
between the upper and lower teeth, like [T] in “think”, and [D] in
“this”
- Alveolar sounds on the other hand are produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge like [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l], and [r]
- Alveopalatal sounds are made up by the front portion of the tongue as it touches the alveolar ridge and then the hard palate or the part of the mouth that’s just behind the alveolar ridge like. [S] in “shoe”, [Z] in “vision”, [tS] in “choose”, and [dZ] in “jam”
- Velar sounds raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate or the velum like [k], [g], and [N], which is the final sound in “king”
- Glottal sounds are produced in the glottis, when you say [h] and [/].
- Uvular sounds are created raising the back of the tongue to the uvula, the best space to explore these sounds would be in words like French [{] and Arabic [q]
- Pharyngeal sounds make the pharynx move, again used mostly in Arabic [÷]
Manners of articulation
Speech sounds are also differentiated by the way the airstream is affected
as it travels from the lungs up and out of the mouth and nose. This is
referred to as the manner of articulation for the sound. Stops: such sounds are produced by a complete obstruction of the airstream
in the mouth, e.g. [b], [p], [t], [d], [k], and [g]. Fricatives: such sounds are produced by a partial obstruction of the
airstream, where the passage in the mouth through which the air escapes is
very narrow, causing friction, e.g. [f], [v], [s], [z], [T], [D], [S], and [Z]. Affricates: such sounds are produced by a stop closure followed
immediately by a slow release of the closure characteristic of the fricative,
e.g. [tS] and [dZ]. Nasals: such sounds are produced when the air escapes through the nasal
cavity rather than the mouth, e.g. [m], [n], and [N]. Liquids: In the production of these sounds, there is some obstruction of the
airstream in the mouth, but not enough to cause any real constriction or
friction, e.g. [l] and [r]. Glides: such sounds are produced with little or no obstruction of the air in
the mouth, e.g. [j] and [w]. When occurring in a word, they must always be
either followed or preceded by a vowel, and in their articulation the tongue
moves rapidly in a gliding fashion either toward or away from a neighboring
vowel.
12
Voicing
Consonant sounds may be produced either with or without a vibration of
vocal cords. If the vocal cords are apart when the airstream is pushed from the lungs,
the air is not obstructed at the glottis and it passes freely into the
supraglottal cavities. The sounds produced this way are characterized as
voiceless, e.g. [p], [t], and [s]. By contrast, if the vocal cords are together, the airstream forces its way
through and causes them to vibrate. Such sounds are voiced sounds, e.g.
[b], [d], and [z].
Aspiration
A few sounds (specifically the voiceless stops) are produced with an extra puff
of air when occurring initially. Compare your pronunciation of the [p], [t], and
[k] sounds in both words in each of the following pair:
(a) pit vs. spit
(b) tar vs. star
(c) cool vs. school
You can easily notice that in the first word of each pair, the voiceless stop is
released with a strong puff of air, which is called aspiration, whereas in the
second word of each pair no such aspiration is found. The voiceless stops in the
first words are therefore characterized as “aspirated” sounds, which distinguish
them from the unaspirated voiceless stops that do not occur initially. In
transcription, we indicate this difference in aspiration by superscripting the
aspirated sound with [
h
], e.g. pit [p
h
It]; spit [spIt]
13
Consonant Drill
Consonant – Voiced
Ba Ba Ba Ba Da Da Da Da
Ma Ma Ma Ma Na Na Na Na
Va Va Va Va Wa, Wa, Wa, Wa
Th Th Th Th Ng, Ng, Ng, Ng
Za Za Za Za Zsh Zsh Zsh Zsh
La La La La Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha
Ja, Ja, Ja, Ja Ya, Ya, Ya, Ya
Ra Ra Ra Ra Ga, Ga, Ga, Ga
Consonant – Voiceless
Ph Ph Ph Ph Fa Fa Fa Fa
Th Th Th Th Ta Ta Ta Ta
Sa Sa Sa Sa Sha Sha Sha Sha
Ch Ch Ch Ch Ka Ka Ka Ka
14
Exercises
Consonant contrasts that cause difficulty
Tank, thank, debt, death,
(c) taught: ____________ (c) thought: _____________
2.
(a) bridge _____________ (a) buzz: ______________
(b) wage: _____________ (b) ways: ______________
(c) change: ____________ (c) chains: ______________
3.
(a) ledger: _____________ (a) leisure: ______________
(b) legion: _____________ (b) lesion: ______________
4.
(a) vim: _____________ (a) whim: _____________
(b) verse: _____________ (b) worse: ______________
(c) vest: ______________ (c) west: ______________
5.
(a) dose: _____________ (a) doze: ______________
(b) peace: _____________ (b) peas: ______________
(c) niece: ____________ (c) knees: ______________
6.
(a) same: _____________ (a) shame: ______________
(b) sea: _____________ (b) she: ______________
(c) ass: ____________ (c) ash: _____________
15
We also enjoy tongue twisters like:
Those toes aren’t these toes.
These teas aren’t those teas.
This tike ties threads together twice.
That tike ties together three threads.
Those threads the two tikes tied are tight.
Twist twice to tie tightly.
Thirty tee-shirts are tan, and thirteen tee-shirts are tie-dyed teal green.
The teal tee-shirts total thirteen, the tan tee-shirts total thirty.
Twisters with “r” and “l”
The rickety ladder rattled right and left before it crashed through the glass.
Rotten lettuce really reeks.
Loose, leafy lettuce reminds me of really pretty, green trees.
Real lemon, real lime, which would you pick every time?
Ribbons rolled, ribbons loose, hair untied, what’s your excuse?
Tip and tap, rip and rap, lip and lap. Tip, rip, lip, tap, rap, lap.
Twisters with “s” and “sh”
She’s so sick, and she’s so sore, I wish her well forevermore.
A shout from the south woke the sleeping sherriff.
Something sure is fishy in this city.
Silver slivers shimmer softly in the sunlight.
Tongue Twisters For S T C F L
Snickety snackety snuck, trickety trackety truck, clickety clackety cluck.
Feely filly fay, freely frilly fray, reapy rippy ray, leapy lippy lay.
Learn to articulate properly. It is simple and can BE INTERESTING. Tongue
twisters are excellent for sharpening enunciation. They make your lips, jaw,
and tongue EXERCISE and increase your ability to articulate.
Tongue Twisters For: B, P, M, and W
These consonants demand ACTIVE LIPS! Say “Boom”. Explode that “b.” Bring
those lips down hard, quick, and sharply for B, P, M. For the W, pucker the lips. FOR B: A big black bug bit a big black bear, made a big black bear
bleed.
16
FOR P: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. If Peter Piper
picked a peck of pickled peppers, where is the peck of pickled peppers
Peter Piper picked. FOR M: Military malarkey makes monstrous madmen into maligned
martyrs. FOR W: If a woodchuck would chuck wood, how much wood would a
woodchuck chuck, if a woodchuck would? But if a woodchuck would
chuck wood, how much wood would a woodchuck chuck, if a woodchuck
could and would chuck wood?
Th (thing) and TH(thou)
Touch the tip of the tongue to the rim of the upper teeth. The tongue tip
should protrude ever so slightly. FOR TH: Theophilus Thistle, the thistle sifter, sifted a sieve of unsifted
thistles. If Theophilus the thistle sifter sifted a sieve of unsifted thistles,
where is the sieve of sifted thistles Theophilus the thistle sifter sifted? What dost thou think of those that go thither?
S, Z, and WH
These sounds require extremely tenuous coordination. To pronounce “S” you
raise your tongue, groove it, and arch it toward the hard palate. Force the
breath through the narrow fissure. The same for the “Z”—except it is vocalized.
For “Sh” and “Zh” the fissure is broader. For “Wh” purse the lips as you blow the
breath through the extended fissure. FOR S: Suzy Schell sells sea shells on the seashore. FOR Z: Moses supposes his toeses are roses, but Moses supposes amiss.
For Moses knowses his toeses aren’t roses as Moses supposes. FOR WH: What whim led Whitey White to whittle near a wharf where a
whale might wheel and whirl?
T, D, N, L, and R
A lazy TONGUE will get you in trouble with these twisters. The first four of
these consonants are made alike. Your tongue should snap as a whip. The tip of
it should SHARPLY TOUCH the hard palate—just above the upper teeth.
On the R, the entire tongue arches itself along the roof of the mouth—without
touching it. FOR T: Thomas Tattertoot took taut twine to tie ten twigs to two tall
trees. FOR D: Double bubble gum bubbles double. Non double bubble gum
doesn’t bubble double.
17
FOR N: A snifter of snuff is enough snuff of a sniff for the snuff-sniffer. FOR L: Likeable Lillian loves lovely luminous aluminum linoleum. FOR R: Around the rugged rock the ragged rascal ran.
F and V
Both F and V are formed by biting lightly the lower inside lip. Say the word
“fife.” This is an example.
F is unvocalized and the breath is merely allowed to escape. But V is vocalized. FOR F: I never felt felt feel Hat like that felt felt. FOR V: Vern Verve is well versed in very wordy verb verse.
H, K, and NG
H is simply made by expiring through the mouth.
K requires the back of the tongue to touch the soft palate. The breath is then
released VERY SHARPLY. G is merely the vocalized form of this sound.
When sounding Ng (sing), again arch the tongue in the same manner. But force
the voice through the nasal passage. FOR H: Harry Hugh hid the heel behind the high hill. If Harry Hugh hid
the heel behind the high hill, where is the heel Harry Hugh hid? FOR K: Cass Cash can catch a check cashier to cash his un-cashed check.
FOR NG: The ringing, swinging, singing singers sang winning songs.
18
Vowel
A vowel is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by an open
configuration of the vocal tract, in contrast to consonants, which are
characterized by a constriction or closure at one or more points along the vocal
tract
Articulation
The articulatory features that distinguish different vowels in a language are
said to determine the Vowel’s quality.
Vowel System is determined in terms of common features like:
1) Height (vertical dimension)
2) Backness (horizontal dimension)
3) Roundedness (lip position)
Height:
Height refers to the vertical position of the tongue relative to either the roof of
the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. In high vowels, such as [i] and [u], the
tongue is positioned high in the mouth, whereas in low vowels, such as [a], the
tongue is positioned low in the mouth.
Backness
Backness refers to the horizontal tongue position during the articulation of a
vowel relative to the back of the mouth. In front vowels, such as [i], the
tongue is positioned forward in the mouth, whereas in back vowels, such as [u],
the tongue is positioned towards the back of the mouth.
Roundedness
Roundedness refers to whether the lips are rounded or not. In Round vowels
such as [o] and [u] the lips comes together and forward to form round shape. In
most languages, roundedness is a reinforcing feature of mid to high back
vowels, and not distinctive. Usually the higher a back vowel, the more intense
the rounding; However, some languages treat roundedness and backness
separately.
19
A Vowel Sound
… is an OPEN sound, ie. it is produced by not blocking the breath with
the lips, teeth, or tongue.
… is always voiced (VD), ie. the vocal cords vibrate. The word “vowel” came
into English from the Latin vocalis meaning “voice.”
… can form a syllable by itself: hell-o, aw-ful
front central back
high seat /iy/ do /uw/
sit /I/ book /ʊ/
mid say /ey/ up /ʌ/
schwa /ə/
no /ow/
met /ɛ/ ball /ɔ/
low cat /æ/ my /ay/ now /aw/
stop /a/
20
Vowels
Phonetic Script
10 again beggar, concert, possible
9 food group, do, blue
8 put wolf, foot, could
7 all warm, broad, door
6 pot cough, what , because
5 ask almond , aunt, heart
4 sat hand, plait
3 send dead , said, friend
2 fit pretty , women, money
1 feet seat , people, we, receive
S. No Sound Word Other Examples
21
20 poor tour, jury, fluent
19 area airport, chair, scarce
18 zero period, idea, dear
17 oil boy, buoy
16 out mouth, town, bow (bend)
15 ice isle, height, buy
14 old boat, toe, soul
ace aim, day, fete eI 13
12 early serve, word, journey
11 up onion, does, trouble
S. No Sound Word Other Examples
Phonetic Script
Vowel Exercises
DRILLS
SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS
EH I OO UH AE A AW
BET BIT BOOK BUT BAT AGAIN BOUGHT
CHECK CHICK COOK CUT CAT TOGETHER CAUGHT
DESK DID PUSH DOES THAT EVER DOT
DEBT FIT FOOT FUN FRANK GATHER FROCK
FENCE GRIT GOOD GUT GALLERY MOTHER GOT
GET KILL COOK CUD CATCH BROTHER COT
KED LIT LOOK LUMP LAMP ELDER LOTTERY
LET MILK SHOULD MUCK MAT SPONSOR MOCK
MEN KNIT NOOK KNUCKLE NATURAL TRAINER KNOCK
NET PIT PUT PUTT PACK TEACHER POPCORN
ayepk
ayesps
ayesp
ayeps
ayep
aye
aapk
aasps
aasp
aaps
aap
aa
awpk
awsps
awsp
awps
awp
aw
oupk
ousps
ousp
oups
oup
ou
oopk
oosps
oosp
oops
oop
oo ee aaow aai
eepk aaowpk aaipk
eesps aaowsps aaisps
eesp aaowsp aaisp
eeps aaowps aaips
eep aaowp aaip
23
LONG VOWEL SOUND
Vowel contrasts that cause difficulty
Transcribe and say the following:
BARK QUICHE TRUE DIRT LONG
DARK DEEP CLUE TURN TALL
HEART HEAT DROOL FERN BROAD
BAR EAT DO CHURN LONGER
CAR SEAT FOOL BURN ALL
CALM DEEPER COOL CURT WALLET
PALM KEEP FOOD BURST WALNET
CHARM NEAT RUDE SURF WALL